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The New Climate Abnormal: A Scientific Report on the Causes, Mechanisms, and Solutions for Extreme Heat and Rainfall

Introduction: A Planet Under Pressure: The Rise of Extreme Weather

The global climate system is in a state of unprecedented flux. In recent years, headlines worldwide have been dominated by reports of record-shattering heatwaves, catastrophic flooding, and devastating droughts.1 These are not isolated meteorological anomalies; they are the tangible and increasingly frequent manifestations of a fundamental shift in the Earth's energy balance. The scientific community, through its most authoritative body, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), has moved beyond tentative association to a position of stark certainty. The IPCC's Sixth Assessment Report states that it is an "established fact" that human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases have directly led to an increased frequency and intensity of weather and climate extremes.1 This conclusion represents the culmination of decades of research, observation, and modeling. It confirms that the extreme weather events impacting societies, economies, and ecosystems across every continent are a direct consequence of a warming planet. The link is no longer a matter of debate but a physical reality, with each fraction of a degree of warming amplifying the risks.1 The severity of these impacts is not uniform; communities with weak health infrastructure, high levels of poverty, and those in areas of unplanned urbanization are disproportionately vulnerable to the hazards of these climate extremes.6 This report provides a comprehensive scientific examination of this new climate abnormal. It will first deconstruct the fundamental physics and atmospheric processes that connect human activities to the observed intensification of extreme heat and rainfall. It will then document the cascading consequences of these events on human and natural systems. Finally, it will present a detailed analysis of the global and local solutions—from international policy and technological innovation to on-the-ground adaptation—that are required to mitigate the crisis and build resilience for the future that is already upon us.

Section 1: The Physics of a Warming World: Causal Mechanisms of Weather Extremes

The increasing ferocity of weather events is not random but is governed by the fundamental laws of physics. Anthropogenic activities have introduced an energy imbalance into the Earth's climate system, which manifests through a series of interconnected physical processes that supercharge the atmosphere and disrupt historical weather patterns.

1.1 The Greenhouse Effect and Anthropogenic Forcing

The foundational mechanism is the greenhouse effect. Gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2​), methane (CH4​), and nitrous oxide (N2​O) in the atmosphere trap heat from the sun, maintaining a habitable temperature on Earth. However, since the Industrial Revolution, human activities—primarily the burning of fossil fuels—have drastically increased the concentration of these gases.6 Scientific data derived from ice cores and modern atmospheric measurements show an undeniable and rapid increase in atmospheric CO2​ levels, establishing a clear human fingerprint on the changing composition of our atmosphere.9 This surplus of greenhouse gases has trapped additional energy within the Earth system, causing the planet's average surface temperature to rise by approximately 1°C (2°F) since the late 19th century. Critically, the world's oceans have absorbed over 90% of this excess heat, leading to a significant and measurable warming of ocean waters.9 This accumulation of energy in the atmosphere and oceans is the primary driver of the observed changes in the climate system, setting the stage for more extreme weather.

1.2 The Intensified Water Cycle and the Clausius-Clapeyron Relationship

One of the most direct consequences of a warmer atmosphere is its effect on the global water cycle. The relationship between temperature and the amount of moisture the air can hold is described by a fundamental thermodynamic principle known as the Clausius-Clapeyron (CC) equation. This physical law dictates that for every 1°C increase in temperature, the atmosphere's capacity to hold water vapor increases by approximately 7%.10 As global temperatures rise, more water evaporates from oceans, lakes, and soil into the warmer, thirstier atmosphere. This means there is more moisture available to be drawn into storm systems.6 Consequently, when conditions are right for precipitation, the resulting rainfall is more intense. Observational data confirms this theoretical link; studies from around the world show that the intensity of extreme precipitation events is increasing at a rate consistent with, and in some cases exceeding, the CC relationship.13 In recent years, a larger percentage of total precipitation has been falling in the form of intense, single-day events, with nine of the top ten years for such events in the United States occurring since 1995.15 This direct thermodynamic link explains why a warmer world is inevitably a world with more extreme downpours and a greater risk of flooding.

1.3 Atmospheric Dynamics Under Stress: Arctic Amplification and the Polar Jet Stream

Beyond simple thermodynamics, global warming is also fundamentally altering the large-scale circulation patterns of the atmosphere. A key driver of this change is "Arctic Amplification," the phenomenon whereby the Arctic region is warming at a rate two to three times faster than the global average.16 This accelerated warming is primarily due to a powerful feedback loop involving sea ice. As bright, reflective sea ice melts, it exposes the darker ocean water below, which absorbs more solar radiation, leading to further warming and more ice melt.18 The polar jet stream—a high-altitude river of fast-flowing air that separates cold polar air from warmer mid-latitude air—is driven by this very temperature difference. As Arctic Amplification reduces the temperature gradient between the pole and the tropics, the engine powering the jet stream weakens.19 This has two profound consequences. First, the west-to-east flow of the jet stream slows down. Second, its path becomes more meandering and "wavy," with larger north-south swings.19 These amplified waves allow frigid polar air to plunge deeper south (causing extreme cold snaps) and masses of hot tropical air to push further north (causing extreme heatwaves). Because the jet stream's eastward progression has slowed, these weather patterns tend to become locked in place, leading to prolonged periods of extreme conditions—be it persistent heat, unrelenting rain, or extended drought.19

1.4 The Anatomy of an Extreme: Heat Domes and Slowing Storm Systems

The large-scale atmospheric changes described above create the conditions for specific, highly destructive weather phenomena. Heat Domes: A "heat dome" is a meteorological event responsible for many of the most severe recent heatwaves. It occurs when a strong and persistent ridge of high pressure in the atmosphere acts like a lid, trapping hot air over a region and preventing it from rising and cooling.22 The air within the dome sinks, compressing and warming even further, while the high pressure deflects cooler weather systems. This phenomenon is a direct manifestation of the wavy, slow-moving jet stream patterns associated with Arctic Amplification. The jet stream's amplified ridges create the stable high-pressure systems that allow heat to build to unprecedented levels over days or even weeks.24 Slowing Storm Systems: In addition to making rainfall more intense, climate change may also be affecting the speed of storm systems themselves. There is growing evidence suggesting a slowing of the forward motion of tropical cyclones over some regions, such as the continental U.S..25 While the attribution of this slowing trend to anthropogenic climate change is an area of active research, the physical implication is clear: a slower-moving storm has more time to release its moisture over a single location. When combined with the 7% increase in moisture content for every degree of warming, this slowing effect can lead to catastrophic rainfall totals and dramatically increase the risk of devastating floods.25 The scientific understanding of these mechanisms has solidified dramatically in recent years. The progression of IPCC reports from the Fifth to the Sixth Assessment reveals a significant strengthening of confidence, moving from describing human influence as "likely" to an "established fact".3 This shift is not based on a single discovery but on a powerful convergence of evidence from multiple, independent lines of inquiry. Foundational principles of physics predicted these outcomes decades ago. Subsequently, improved satellite and observational data provided quantitative evidence that these changes were indeed occurring.9 Most recently, the maturation of "event attribution science" has allowed researchers to analyze a specific extreme event, such as a particular heatwave, and calculate with statistical confidence how much more likely or intense it was made by human-caused climate change.1 This ability to connect the abstract concept of global temperature rise to concrete, localized disasters provides tangible, undeniable proof of climate change's impact, creating a feedback loop where better science strengthens the case for urgent action. Extreme Event Type 1.5°C Global Warming 2.0°C Global Warming 4.0°C Global Warming Extreme Heat Hottest days will be ~1.5-2x the rate of global warming in many regions. Hottest days will be ~1.5-2x the rate of global warming in many regions. Changes in intensity would be quadruple those at 1.5°C. (Frequency of 1-in-10-year event) 4.1 times more frequent 5.6 times more frequent 9.4 times more frequent Extreme Precipitation Intensity increases by ~10.5% Intensity increases by ~14% Intensity increases by ~30% (Frequency of 1-in-10-year event) 1.5 times more frequent 1.7 times more frequent 2.7 times more frequent Agricultural & Ecological Droughts 2.0 times more frequent 2.4 times more frequent 4.1 times more frequent (Frequency of 1-in-10-year event)

Table 1: IPCC Projections for Extreme Weather Events at Different Global Warming Levels. This table synthesizes data on the projected increase in frequency and intensity of key extreme events relative to a pre-industrial baseline (1850-1900) under different warming scenarios. The data starkly illustrates that every increment of warming significantly amplifies the risk and severity of climate extremes.1

Section 2: A Cascade of Consequences: The Global Impact of Weather Extremes

The intensification of extreme heat and rainfall is not a future, abstract risk but a present-day reality inflicting a cascade of damaging consequences across human societies, economies, and natural ecosystems. These impacts are interconnected, often creating compound disasters and exacerbating existing vulnerabilities.

2.1 Human Health and Societal Vulnerability

Climate change is a fundamental threat to human health, acting as a "threat multiplier" that undermines decades of progress in public health.7 Extreme heat is a direct and lethal threat. Heatwaves are now the leading weather-related cause of death in many developed nations and are projected to cause approximately 250,000 additional deaths per year globally between 2030 and 2050 from heat stress, malnutrition, and disease alone.7 Extreme rainfall and subsequent flooding contaminate drinking water, spread waterborne diseases, and create conditions for mold growth, leading to respiratory illnesses.6 These health impacts are not distributed equally. The severity of the consequences is a function of both the hazard and the vulnerability of the affected community. Populations living in poverty, in areas with inadequate health infrastructure, and in regions subject to rapid and unplanned urbanization are far less able to prepare for and respond to climate-related disasters, making them acutely vulnerable.6 This disparity underscores the profound social equity and climate justice dimensions of the crisis, where those who have contributed least to the problem often suffer its most severe consequences.

2.2 Economic and Infrastructural Disruption

The economic toll of extreme weather is escalating. In the United States, for example, the frequency of weather and climate-related disasters causing at least $1 billion in damages has risen dramatically in recent decades, a clear signal of the growing financial burden.2 These costs ripple through the entire economy. The IPCC has identified key sectors that are particularly vulnerable, including agriculture, water security, forestry, tourism, and energy.6 Droughts and floods devastate agricultural yields, threatening food security and rural livelihoods. Extreme heat strains energy grids as demand for air conditioning soars, increasing the risk of blackouts. It also damages critical infrastructure, causing roadways, runways, and railways to buckle and degrade.22 Flooding from intense rainfall overwhelms drainage systems, inundates coastal communities, and destroys homes and businesses. The cumulative effect is a persistent drag on economic growth and a diversion of resources from development to disaster recovery.

2.3 Ecosystems at the Brink

Natural systems are being pushed to their limits. Climate change interacts with and amplifies other environmental stressors like habitat loss and pollution, accelerating biodiversity decline.7 The increasing likelihood of "compound events"—such as the co-occurrence of heatwaves and droughts—creates conditions ripe for massive wildfires, which destroy vast tracts of forest, release enormous amounts of carbon, and degrade air quality over thousands of kilometers.3 Extreme rainfall events cause soil erosion and wash pollutants into rivers and coastal waters, harming aquatic ecosystems. In the oceans, marine heatwaves are becoming more frequent and intense, leading to mass coral bleaching events and disrupting marine food webs from the bottom up.5 These impacts reduce the ability of ecosystems to provide the essential services—such as clean water, pollination, and carbon sequestration—upon which human society depends. A critical challenge in addressing these consequences is the inherent mismatch of scales. The root cause of the problem—greenhouse gas emissions—is global in nature; a ton of CO2​ has the same warming effect regardless of where it is emitted.9 This global forcing alters planetary-scale systems, such as the polar jet stream, which operates on a hemispheric level.19 However, the devastating impacts of these large-scale shifts are experienced as acute, highly localized events: a specific city inundated by a flash flood, a particular agricultural region scorched by a heat dome.1 This disconnect creates a profound governance challenge. An effective response cannot be purely global or purely local; it requires a coherent, multi-level framework that seamlessly connects international agreements to national policies and, ultimately, to tangible, on-the-ground adaptation projects. This structural necessity informs the entire architecture of the solutions required to confront the climate crisis.

Section 3: A Global Blueprint for Climate Action: Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies

Addressing the multifaceted challenge of climate change requires a comprehensive strategy that operates on two parallel tracks: mitigation, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and address the root cause of the problem; and adaptation, to build resilience and manage the impacts of the climate change that is already unavoidable. A robust portfolio of international policies, technological innovations, and local initiatives forms the basis of the global response.

3.1 The International Policy Framework: From Global Accords to National Commitments

The cornerstone of global climate policy is the 2015 Paris Agreement, a legally binding international treaty whose central aim is to limit global warming to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, while pursuing efforts to limit the increase to 1.5°C.31 Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): The primary mechanism for achieving the Paris Agreement's goals is through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). These are national climate action plans submitted by each country, outlining their specific targets for emissions reduction and strategies for adaptation.32 A key feature of the agreement is the "ratchet mechanism," which requires countries to submit new or updated NDCs every five years, with each successive plan representing a progression beyond the previous one.31 This process is designed to steadily increase global ambition over time. The third round of NDCs, due in 2025, is considered a critical opportunity to align global efforts with the 1.5°C pathway.34 Carbon Pricing: A central policy tool for driving emissions reductions is carbon pricing. This approach places a direct cost on greenhouse gas emissions, creating a financial incentive for polluters to reduce their output. The two primary forms are carbon taxes (a fixed price per ton of emissions) and Emissions Trading Systems (ETS), also known as cap-and-trade, where a cap is set on total emissions and entities can buy and sell allowances to emit.36 According to the World Bank's Carbon Pricing Dashboard, momentum for these policies is growing. As of 2024, 75 carbon pricing instruments are in operation globally, covering approximately 24% of global greenhouse gas emissions and generating a record $104 billion in government revenue in 2023.37 This revenue can be reinvested into climate and nature-related programs, further accelerating the transition.

3.2 The Technological Transition: Decarbonizing the Global Energy System

Achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement is contingent upon a rapid and profound transformation of the global energy system, moving away from fossil fuels toward clean and efficient alternatives. Renewable Energy Expansion: At the 2023 UN Climate Change conference (COP28), nations agreed to a global target of tripling renewable energy capacity by 2030. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 2023 saw a record 473 gigawatts (GW) of renewable capacity added globally, led overwhelmingly by solar and wind power. However, this growth is geographically uneven, with Asia accounting for 69% of the expansion, and the current trajectory is insufficient to meet the tripling target.40 The Efficiency Imperative: A parallel goal from COP28 is to double the global average annual rate of energy efficiency improvement to 4% by 2030. Energy efficiency is a critical lever for reducing demand, lowering costs, and cutting emissions. However, the International Energy Agency (IEA) reports that progress has slowed significantly, with the global rate of energy intensity improvement falling to just 1% in 2023 and 2024, far short of the required pace.44 Bridging Technologies: Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS): For industrial sectors where emissions are difficult to abate, such as cement and steel production, CCUS technologies are considered a vital tool. CCUS involves capturing CO2​ emissions at the source and either utilizing them to create products or storing them permanently underground. Data from the Global CCS Institute indicates significant momentum in this area. The total capacity of CCUS projects in the development pipeline grew by 44% in 2022 and a further 48% in 2023, reaching a total of 361 million tonnes per annum (Mtpa) under development.50 The Innovation Frontier: While deploying existing technologies is paramount, achieving deep, long-term decarbonization depends on continued innovation. The IEA estimates that approximately 35% of the cumulative CO2​ emissions reductions needed to reach net-zero by 2050 must come from technologies that are currently at the demonstration or prototype stage.54 This highlights the critical need for sustained government support for research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) in areas like clean hydrogen, advanced batteries, next-generation nuclear reactors, and direct air capture. These investments are essential for bringing down costs and ensuring a portfolio of scalable, affordable clean energy options is available for all sectors of the economy.55 The path of technological development reveals a critical strategic principle. The successful deployment of mature, market-ready technologies creates the very conditions necessary for the next wave of innovation to succeed. For instance, the massive scale-up of solar and wind power, driven by supportive policies, has drastically reduced the cost of renewable electricity.59 This low-cost clean electricity is now the essential prerequisite for producing cost-competitive green hydrogen through electrolysis.55 Similarly, advances in battery manufacturing for electric vehicles are paving the way for cost-effective grid-scale energy storage. This demonstrates that policy must operate on a dual track: aggressive "market pull" incentives, such as subsidies and mandates, are needed to deploy today's mature technologies at maximum scale, while robust "technology push" support, such as R&D funding and backing for demonstration projects, is essential to cultivate the emerging technologies of tomorrow. Viewing these two imperatives as separate or competing is a strategic error; they are mutually reinforcing components of a single, coherent innovation strategy. Mitigation Strategy Mechanism Current Status (2023-2024) Key International Target Renewable Energy Displaces fossil fuels in electricity generation. Record 473 GW added in 2023, reaching 3,870 GW total global capacity. Triple renewable capacity by 2030. Energy Efficiency Reduces overall energy demand across all sectors. Global energy intensity improvement slowed to ~1%. Double the annual rate of improvement to 4% by 2030. CCUS Captures CO2​ from industrial sources and power plants. Project pipeline capacity grew 48% to 361 Mtpa in development. No specific quantitative target, but essential for net-zero scenarios. Carbon Pricing Creates a financial incentive to reduce emissions. 75 instruments in operation, covering 24% of global emissions and raising $104 billion. No specific target, but broader adoption is a key policy goal.

Table 2: A Comparative Overview of Climate Mitigation Strategies. This table summarizes the primary global mitigation levers, their mechanisms, latest progress metrics, and internationally agreed-upon targets, highlighting the significant gap between current action and stated ambition.38

3.3 Building Resilience: Localized Adaptation for a Changed Climate

While mitigation is essential to prevent the worst impacts of climate change, a certain amount of warming is already locked in. Therefore, adaptation—adjusting our societies and infrastructure to cope with the new climate reality—is an urgent necessity. Effective adaptation often focuses on the local and urban scale, where impacts are most acutely felt. Cooling Our Cities: Urban areas are particularly vulnerable to extreme heat due to the "Urban Heat Island" (UHI) effect, where dense concentrations of heat-absorbing materials like asphalt and concrete can make cities significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas.60 Key strategies to mitigate UHI include: Cool Roofs: These involve using materials with high solar reflectance (albedo) and high thermal emittance. Such surfaces reflect more sunlight and more efficiently radiate away absorbed heat, which can lower roof surface temperatures, reduce indoor cooling needs, save energy, and decrease ambient air temperatures.60 Green Infrastructure: This approach integrates vegetation into the urban landscape. Green roofs, green walls, and urban tree canopies provide cooling through two primary mechanisms: shading surfaces from direct sunlight and evapotranspiration, a process where plants release water vapor into the air, which has a cooling effect. These strategies also offer co-benefits like improved air quality, biodiversity, and stormwater management.62 The Sponge City Concept: To combat extreme rainfall and urban flooding, a new paradigm in urban water management known as the "Sponge City" concept has emerged, pioneered in China.66 The goal is to make urban areas more permeable, allowing them to absorb, store, filter, and slowly release rainwater, much like a natural sponge. This is achieved through a network of green infrastructure, including: Permeable pavements and bricks that allow water to soak into the ground. Rain gardens and bioswales designed to capture and filter runoff. Green roofs that absorb rainfall. Constructed wetlands and ponds that store excess water.66 Cities like Shanghai and Wuhan have been at the forefront of this initiative, with a national target for 80% of urban areas in pilot cities to incorporate sponge functions by 2030, enabling them to capture and manage at least 70% of stormwater runoff.66 The implementation of these adaptation measures often reveals a critical dilemma. The political and public will to invest in large-scale resilience projects frequently materializes only in the aftermath of a major disaster. The devastating Beijing floods of 2012, for example, were a key catalyst for China's national Sponge City program.66 This reactive approach, while understandable, is contrary to the advice of scientific bodies like the IPCC, which stress the importance of proactive planning to avoid simply reconstructing existing vulnerabilities after a disaster strikes.6 Proactive adaptation—systematically integrating resilience into urban planning, zoning laws, and building codes before a catastrophe—is more effective and ultimately less costly. However, it faces significant barriers: it requires substantial upfront investment, confronts institutional inertia, and lacks the political urgency of a post-disaster response. This highlights a fundamental challenge in climate adaptation: the political economy often favors reactive recovery over proactive resilience. Overcoming this requires a structural shift in governance and finance to prioritize and reward pre-disaster planning and investment.

Conclusion: Navigating the Future: Projected Results and the Path Forward

The scientific evidence is unequivocal: human-induced greenhouse gas emissions are warming the planet, fundamentally altering atmospheric physics to produce more frequent and more intense extreme heat and rainfall events. The mechanisms—a supercharged water cycle governed by the Clausius-Clapeyron relationship and destabilized atmospheric circulation patterns driven by Arctic Amplification—are well understood and extensively documented. The consequences are already being felt globally in the form of devastating impacts on human health, economic stability, and the integrity of natural ecosystems. The analysis presented in this report makes clear that there is no single solution to this crisis. The only viable path forward is a dual imperative, pursued with urgency and at an unprecedented scale. The first imperative is aggressive mitigation. This requires a rapid global transition away from fossil fuels, driven by the massive deployment of renewable energy, a radical improvement in energy efficiency, and the development of technologies like CCUS for hard-to-abate sectors. This must be underpinned by robust international cooperation, as embodied in the Paris Agreement, and effective national policies, such as carbon pricing, that translate global ambition into concrete action. The second imperative is proactive adaptation. Because of the inertia in the climate system, a certain degree of further warming and an increase in climate extremes are already unavoidable. Societies must therefore build resilience to this new reality. This involves reimagining our urban spaces with strategies like cool roofs and green infrastructure to combat extreme heat, and adopting systemic approaches like the Sponge City concept to manage extreme rainfall and prevent catastrophic flooding. The choice of futures is stark. A path of inaction or insufficient action projects a world of escalating disasters, where the cascading impacts of climate change increasingly strain and overwhelm our social, economic, and ecological systems.6 Conversely, a path of decisive, coordinated, and ambitious action offers the possibility of a more resilient and sustainable future. The scientific knowledge is clear, and a comprehensive portfolio of technological and policy solutions is available. 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SDG Knowledge Hub, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://sdg.iisd.org/news/world-bank-tool-maps-carbon-pricing-initiatives/ Regional energy transition outlook: European Union - IRENA, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.irena.org/Publications/2025/Jun/Regional-energy-transition-outlook-European-Union Record Growth in Renewables, but Progress Needs to be Equitable - IRENA, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.irena.org/News/pressreleases/2024/Mar/Record-Growth-in-Renewables-but-Progress-Needs-to-be-Equitable World Energy Transitions Outlook 2024: 1.5°C pathway - Executive summary - IRENA, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2024/Nov/IRENA_World_energy_transitions_outlook_2024_Summary.pdf Global Renewables Outlook: Energy transformation 2050 - IRENA, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.irena.org/publications/2020/Apr/Global-Renewables-Outlook-2020 Energy Efficiency Progress Tracker – Data Tools - IEA, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/energy-efficiency-progress-tracker Executive summary – Energy Efficiency 2023 – Analysis - IEA, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-efficiency-2023/executive-summary Energy Efficiency - Energy System - IEA, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.iea.org/energy-system/energy-efficiency-and-demand/energy-efficiency Executive summary – Energy Efficiency 2024 – Analysis - IEA, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-efficiency-2024/executive-summary Energy Efficiency Policy Toolkit 2025 – Analysis - IEA, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-efficiency-policy-toolkit-2025 Energy Efficiency 2023 - NET, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/dfd9134f-12eb-4045-9789-9d6ab8d9fbf4/EnergyEfficiency2023.pdf Global Status of CCS - Global CCS Institute, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://status23.globalccsinstitute.com/ GLOBAL STATUS OF CCS 2022, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://status22.globalccsinstitute.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Global-Status-of-CCS-2022_Download.pdf Global Carbon - Global CCS Institute, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://status22.globalccsinstitute.com/ GLOBAL STATUS OF CCS 2022, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://status22.globalccsinstitute.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Global-Status-of-CCS-2022-Report-Final-compressed.pdf Reaching net zero emissions demands faster innovation, but we've already come a long way – Analysis - IEA, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.iea.org/commentaries/reaching-net-zero-emissions-demands-faster-innovation-but-weve-already-come-a-long-way Strategic opportunities in technology innovation – Sustainable Recovery – Analysis - IEA, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.iea.org/reports/sustainable-recovery/strategic-opportunities-in-technology-innovation Overview: technology and innovation for climate mitigation - WIPO, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.wipo.int/green-technology-book-mitigation/en/technology-and-innovation-for-climate-mitigation/index.html IEA report on Clean Energy Innovation – Bioenergy, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.ieabioenergy.com/blog/publications/iea-report-on-clean-energy-innovation/ Why innovative climate tech requires global collaboration | World Economic Forum, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.weforum.org/stories/2024/06/innovative-climate-technology-requires-global-collaboration/ Clean energy technology innovation and the vital role of governments, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.iea.org/reports/clean-energy-innovation/clean-energy-technology-innovation-and-the-vital-role-of-governments Urban Heat Island Mitigation - Cool Roof Rating Council, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://coolroofs.org/resources/urban-heat-island-mitigation Using Cool Roofs to Reduce Heat Islands | US EPA, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.epa.gov/heatislands/using-cool-roofs-reduce-heat-islands Mitigating Urban Heat Island: Strategies and Policies - Number Analytics, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.numberanalytics.com/blog/mitigating-urban-heat-island-strategies-policies Towards Sustainable and Climate-Resilient Cities: Mitigating Urban Heat Islands Through Green Infrastructure - MDPI, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/17/3/1303 (PDF) Mitigating Urban Heat Island Through Green Roofs - ResearchGate, 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280006943_Mitigating_Urban_Heat_Island_Through_Green_Roofs Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium of Strategies - Green roofs - Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 8월 2, 2025에 액세스, https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2014-08/documents/greenroofscompendium_ch3.pdf Case Study: Sponge City - 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